洋务运动时期海防思想研究

【外文题名】On Thoughts of Coastal Defense during Westernization Period

【作者】 孙成华

【关键词】 海防思想 晚清 洋务运动 近代化

【外文关键词】 Thoughts of coastal defense Late Qing Dynasty westernization movement modernization

【导师姓名】孙晓春

【学位名称】博士

【学位年度】2009

【学位授予单位】吉林大学

【分类号】K256.1,E295.2

【录入时间】2009-01-01

【全文挂接】

【摘要】，从而把林则徐、魏源提出的“师夷之长技以制夷”思想由理论付诸实践。对于如何处理中学和西学的关系，洋务派提出了“以中国之伦常名教为原本，辅以诸国富强之术”，即保留中国传统的封建政治制度和意识形态，学习西方科学技术，尤其是军事装备和技术，达到富国强兵的目的。“中本西末”是洋务运动的指导思想，也是洋务派军事变革的基本原则。 从1860年第二次鸦片战争结束到1874年日本侵台事件发生前是洋务派海防思想的萌芽阶段，创建新式海军始终是这一阶段的中心问题。洋务派在军事自强运动伊始，就非常重视海防问题，将加强海防，防御外敌海上入侵作为重要任务。但限于当时新式军事工业基础的缺失，新式水师的舰船来源只能靠外购。通过阿思本舰队事件后，清政府才开始了靠发展中国自己的造船工业来创建海军的进程。 洋务运动时期海防两次论争是洋务运动时期海防思想的重要内容，也是本文重点展开研究的对象。海防第一次论争在1874年日本侵台事件背景下展开,建立海军是这次海防论争的主要议题，参加论争的洋务派官员虽然对中国国防重心是陆防还是海防等问题存在争议，但都认识到海防危机日趋严重这一事实。李鸿章的海防思想在这次海防论争中对清政府的海防决策影响最大，并在其《筹议海防折》中系统表达了对海防问题的认识，提出了海防重点、防卫之法、海军组建等主张，从中可以看出李鸿章深受德国希理哈所著《防海新论》的影响。通过这次海防论争，清政府做出海防紧要，既为目前当务之急，又属国家久远之图的决策，此次论争最终确定南洋北洋并举的海军建设方针，近代中国政府制定的第一个海防海军建设方案由此形成，并对近代中国海军建设产生重要影响。1884年中法战争中福建海军全军覆没，清政府认识到海防海军建设与西方列强的巨大差距，洋务运动时期海防第二次论争由此引发。经过此次论争，清政府最终做出“大治水师” 的决策，用以解决海战中暴露出的“造船不坚、畛域攸分”等问题，并把“精练海军”作为海防建设“第一要务”；成立海军衙门统一海军领导权；购买铁甲巨舰；建造海防军港基地；明确强调日本对中国海防的威胁；强调台湾在中国海防中的重要战略地位。海防第二次论争是海防第一次论争的继续和深化。本文主体部分以海防两次争论为背景，从地缘政治角度重点探讨了其产生的必然性，同时详细分析了海防与塞防之争、分区设防与统一调度的论争、制造舰船与购买舰船的论争，虽然海防论争关注的主题不断变化，但从两次论争的具体探讨中，我们看到在中国近代化进程中，洋务运动时期海防思想正经历着从传统到近代的观念转变。 尽管洋务运动时期海防思想的实践成果主要体现在武器装备的近代化和新式海军人才的培养方面，就西学本质而言，“中本西末”始终是其基本指导思想，因此洋务派无法彻底超越自身观念的局限。在近代海军建设过程中，洋务派从未提出关于海军军制的理论。而洋务运动时期中国海军的主要作战指导思想是“自守口岸”的消极防御思想，其消极性体现在海军始终被视为配合陆上部队防守口岸的工具。相比同时期的日本，不仅始终强调海军作为独立军种的重要性，而且始终贯彻争夺制海权的思想，这也最终导致了日本海军近代化建设的成功而清政府海军近代化建设的失败，同时也就注定了中日甲午战争中一胜一败的结局。 作为中国近代海防思想的重要组成部分，洋务运动时期海防思想既有不可忽视的历史地位，也有明显的局限性。因此，研究洋务运动时期海防思想有助于深刻理解中国军事近代化和社会近代化的历史进程，更有助于我们正确评价海防思想观念的转变在近代化过程中曾起到的积极作用。洋务运动时期海防思想在理论上和实践上都具有重要的研究价值。通过对比分析中国洋务运动时期海防建设与日本明治维新时期海防建设，我们发现洋务运动时期海防思想在其产生发展过程中有以下特点：一是海防思想的发展具有被动性，海防海军建设和作战思想的产生和发展的根源，很大程度上来自外敌海上入侵对国防安全造成的威胁，是特殊历史时期抗御外患压迫的应变式反映，而非近代中国社会发展的自身要求。二是海防战略的保守性。作为当时统治阶层主流思想观念的体现，消极保守的海防战略始终在近代海防中占据统治地位，这不仅制约了海军建设发展，而且成为近代中国历次反侵略海上作战失败的重要原因。三是海防理论缺乏系统性。这一时期海防理论著述相比西方不仅陈旧落后而且零散，与同时期的日本相比也存在明显差距。 洋务运动时期国防观念的转变，也就是从传统重陆轻海的传统国防观念向近代国家安全观念的转变，是本文要讨论的核心问题。通过对洋务运动时期海防思想的研究，我们不仅揭示了中国海防观念由传统向近代的转变过程，而且从中也可以得到很多启示：首先，必须认识到提高全民族的海洋观念和海权意识的重要性；中国只有切实转变观念，充分重视海洋这条与世界联系的纽带，才能走上面向世界的开放发展之路。其次，必须认识到海防和海军建设的长期性与复杂性，海军建设是一个科技含量很高的复杂系统工程，在与国家经济发展相适应的同时，海军建设更需要先进海防理论体系的支持。

【外文摘要】After the Second Opium War, the Western capitalist powers launched a new round of invasion against China by sea. Chinese nation was facing a severe crisis of survival. Westernization Group, headed by a Li -hongzhang held a perception on the current situation and advocated that the Chinese declining tendency of feudalism reign should be relieved through the notion of learning from foreign fortes on technology to restrict the foreign, which eventually lead to the military self-strengthening movement. The Westernization Group put forward a principle that China’s traditional feudal political system and ideology should be retained; meanwhile western science and technology, especially military equipment and technology should be utilized to achieve the enhancement national strength. The primary stage of views on coastal defense began from 1860 to the end of the Second Opium War. The establishment of modern Navy has been the central issue. How to strengthen maritime defense and protect against foreign invasion were viewed by Westernization Group as an important mission. Limited to lack of basic modern military industry, new navy procured the ships relying on outsourcing. The main body of this dissertation is composed around the topic of two arguments on costal defense, which are the most significant part in terms of coastal defense thoughts. The fact that Japan invaded Taiwan in 1874 marked the opening up of the first argument on costal defense. People held different views about it, but they agreed on the urgency of coastal defense crisis. The thoughts posed by Lihongzhang had an important impact, which was mainly reflected in the essay On Costal Defense, in which systematic thoughts of coastal defense were proposed under the influence of former reference. The Qing government finally determined Nanyang and Beiyang Navy construction principles; thus the modern Chinese government has formulated the first program of naval construction, which provided a strong impetus to the modern Chinese Navy construction. Under the background of Sino-French War in 1884 in Fujian, the second argument on costal defense was launched as a continuation and deepening of the first one. Before 1894, the focuses of thoughts on coastal defense were put on the construction of weapons and equipment modernization and training of modern naval personnel; many issues were put on schedule, such as foundation of central administrative institution, purchase of modern weapon, construction of harbor base, emphasis on anti Japan policy and Taiwan, etc., Lots of issues under this background are discussed in this dissertation, from which we perceive the transformation of thoughts between tradition and modernity. Although the most distinguished reflection of this period was on the modernization of naval weapons and personnel, in nature, the thought of Chinese orientation was basic guiding principle. Therefore, Westernization Group cannot surpass its own limitation. The Navy has not put forward a theory of military system and the negative and conservative combat thought of Port isolation came first, according to which navy is regarded as the subordinated tool of defending port. Comparing with the contemporaneous Japanese thoughts on coastal defense, it is obvious to figure out the backwardness it has to the development of thoughts on coastal defense and of naval construction. As an important part of Chinese modern thoughts on coastal defense, its value should be evaluated sufficiently and it helps us deepen the understanding of China's military modernization and the Modernization of China as well as the significance of naval ideological change. This dissertation aims at analyzing the thoughts of coastal defense during the Westernization Movement Period. Its significant value is reflected not only at a theoretical level and is also reflected in the practical level. The thoughts were of weaknesses and the positive side should be affirmed，however, its limitations should not be overlooked; the thoughts of coastal defense have the following deficiencies: passive development of thoughts of coastal defense; conservative strategic policy; unsystematic defense theory. We have learned a lesson that transformation of thoughts served as a great decisive factor during the process of military modernization in modern China. This dissertation reveals the whole process of naval ideological transformation during modern Chinese society and the references and enlightenment we have facilitate our perception on the world. Enhancement of national marine conception and marine power consciousness contribute significantly not only to the advancement of Chinese society but to Chinese navy construction. The construction and modernization of coastal defense during Westernization period is overall a failure, but many possible factors that lead to success are also included, which are just what the dissertation aims for and which deserve our further discussion in-depth and objective evaluation.